The Peace of Westphalia

A series of treaties ended the Thirty Years' War, one of Europe's deadliest conflicts. Historians often cite them as a foundation for the modern system of sovereign states.

Context

The Thirty Years' War began in 1618 as a religious and political conflict in Bohemia and spread across the Holy Roman Empire, drawing in powers such as Sweden, France, Spain and the Habsburgs. Fighting, disease and famine caused enormous losses in German lands, though estimates of the population decline vary widely.

The settlement is really a group of agreements negotiated at the cities of Osnabruck and Munster. The main treaties were signed on 24 October 1648. They confirmed Calvinism alongside Catholicism and Lutheranism in the Empire, adjusted borders, and recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic and the Swiss Confederation.

They also gave the many territories of the Empire greater freedom to conduct their own affairs, which weakened the emperor's authority.

The popular idea that Westphalia created the modern state system is debated. Many historians regard it as a simplified, later interpretation, since sovereignty developed gradually, but the treaties remain an important landmark in European diplomacy.

The war's end also reshaped the balance of power, as France and Sweden gained territory and influence while the Habsburg emperor's control over German affairs declined.